Systems and method for compensation of sensor degradation in shooter detection systems

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods for compensation of sensor degradation in multi-shooter detection systems are described. In such systems, shooter position and trajectory can be estimated precisely from the shockwaves produced at the plurality of sensors by the incoming shots. However, sensor positions can shift and the performance of some sensors may degrade for various reasons. To compensate for sensor degradation that may occur over the life of a long-deployed system, the shooter estimation algorithms are dynamically adapted by performing a least-squares regression analysis of the shockwave arrival times to obtain a time residual for each shot, observing multiple shots, and weighting the individual contributions of the sensors as a function of the time residuals for the multiple shots.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 10/925,876, filed Aug. 24, 2004 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,190,633,the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to law enforcement technologies andsecurity, and more particularly to methods and systems for estimatingthe location of a shooter firing a supersonic projectile based onshockwave-only information.

Systems and methods are known that can determine the general directionand trajectory of supersonic projectiles, such as bullets and artilleryshells, by measuring parameters associated with the shockwave generatedby a projectile. One such system, described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,930,202utilizes a distributed array of acoustic sensors to detect the arrivaltimes, amplitudes and frequency characteristics of a projectile'sshockwave and the muzzle blast from a firearm. The time of arrival (TOA)information for the shockwave can be used to determine the projectile'strajectory: azimuth, elevation, and intercept with an arbitrary plane inthe system coordinate frame. With additional information from the muzzleblast, an accurate location of the origin of the projectile and a lineof bearing to the origin of the projectile can be determined. When themuzzle blast is masked, shadowed, silenced or otherwise distorted, atleast the bullet trajectory can be estimated from the shockwave alone.

Conventional systems typically employ an antenna with a plurality ofacoustic sensors, which can be relatively closely spaced (e.g., 1 meterapart) or widely dispersed (e.g., mounted on a vehicle or carried bysoldiers on a battlefield), with each sensor measuring shockwavepressure omni-directionally at its respective location. One exemplaryantenna may include, for example, a total of 7 omni-directionalmicrophones, with 6 microphones distributed over the surface of a sphere(approx. diameter 1 m) and the seventh microphone located in the centerof the sphere. An arrangement with less than 7 sensors can produceobjectionable lobes in the spatial sensitivity pattern of the sensorarray.

Sensor positions can shift over the service life of a deployed systemand/or sensor performance can degrade over time for various reasons.Occasionally, some sensors may stop operating altogether.

It would therefore be desirable to provide a system and method thatcompensates for changes in sensor position and sensor performance bycalibrating themselves automatically or with operator assistance.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention is directed to a method for calibrating sensor positionsbased on shock and muzzle measurements processed from a series of shotsfired from a known location and in a known direction, as well as anapproach for dynamically adapting shock-only shooter estimationalgorithms to compensate for sensor degradation and/or loss.

According to one aspect of the invention, a method for calibratingrelative sensor positions of sensors in a shooter detection systemincludes the steps of determining approximate relative locationinformation of the sensors, firing at least two shots having differentknown shooter positions and known bullet trajectories,

determining a time difference between a muzzle-blast arrival time and ashockwave arrival time for each of the sensors and for each shot, anddetermining the relative sensor positions that produce a minimumresidual of the time differences for the at least two shots.

Embodiments of the invention may include determining the relative sensorpositions by a least-squares search. The least-squares search can beinitialized from a previous known location of the sensors oralternatively from an approximately measured location of the sensors.Any one of the sensors can be selected as a reference sensor and therelative muzzle-blast arrival times and shockwave arrival times can becomputed for each sensor relative to the reference sensor.

According to another aspect of the invention, a method for compensatingfor sensor degradation in a multi-sensor shooter detection systemincludes the steps of determining a time of arrival of shockwavesproduced at the sensors by incoming shots, performing a least-squaresregression for the shockwave arrival times at the sensors to determine atime residual, observing a contribution of each of the sensors to thetime residual for a plurality of shots, and assigning a weight for eachsensor, said weight being inversely proportional a contribution of saidsensor to the time residual.

Embodiments of the invention may include normalizing the contribution toan observed maximum time of arrival difference. In addition, a weightedshockwave arrival time can be computed that enhances a contribution fromsensors that have a greater reliability. With this approach, the shooterposition and bullet trajectory can be determined from a time residualcomputed with the weighted shockwave arrival time. Any weight that hasbeen changed due to sensor malfunction can be adjusted when the sensorhas been repaired.

Further features and advantages of the present invention will beapparent from the following description of preferred embodiments andfrom the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The following figures depict certain illustrative embodiments of theinvention in which like reference numerals refer to like elements. Thesedepicted embodiments are to be understood as illustrative of theinvention and not as limiting in any way.

FIG. 1 shows schematically an exemplary sensor array with 7omni-directional acoustic sensors;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a shockwave Time-of-Arrival (TOA)model; and

FIG. 3 shows the pressure of a shockwave emanating from a projectile.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS

The invention is directed to systems and methods that are able tocompensate for changes in the position and performance of acousticsensors that detect shockwave signals from a supersonic projectile todetermine the projectile's trajectory. In particular, the systems andmethods described herein can calibrate themselves automatically or withoperator assistance in the event that one or more sensors change theirrelative position, malfunction or fail.

Generally, an acoustic system for shooter localization according to theinvention utilizes a widely distributed array of acoustic sensors thatdetect the leading edge of a projectile's shockwave and the muzzle blastfrom the apparatus used to launch the projectile, for instance a rifle.The wave arrival times of the shockwave and muzzle blast are measuredfor each waveform type at the sensors. This time of arrival (TOA)information for the shockwave and blast wave can be used to determinethe projectile's trajectory, a line of bearing to the origin of theprojectile, and the distance from a sensor to the shooter.

Although ideally the shock waveform contains useful information aboutthe distance the shockwave has propagated, realistically the shockwaveform will often be contaminated by ground reflections and forwardscattering and other multi-path propagation, so that it can be difficultto reliably extract distance information solely from shock waveformshape or duration. For trajectory estimation, the system reliesprimarily upon measuring arrival time of the waveform based on leadingedge detection, as the leading edge is not corrupted by multi-pathpropagation.

These same sensors that detect the shockwave can be used to localize themuzzle blast if the muzzle blast signal at the sensors is sufficientlydiscernible from the shockwave and if the muzzle blast signal can beassumed to travel a direct line-of-sight between the muzzle and thesensors. The ability to localize the muzzle blast is used in conjunctionwith the shockwave information to very accurately locate theprojectile's origin. However, relying solely on muzzle blast may not bea reliable measure for locating the projectile's origin, as it ispossible to silence the blast. Furthermore, the muzzle blast can beattenuated by interfering manmade structures (e.g. buildings) or naturalstructures (e.g. hills). Therefore, in actual deployment of the system,muzzle blast information is used secondarily to the shockwaveinformation. However, a signal from a controlled muzzle blast can beused to calibrate the system.

An acoustic counter shooter system according to the invention isgenerally illustrated in FIG. 1. The depicted exemplary embodiment of anacoustic sensor array 10 includes seven sensors 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17,18, for example, omni-directional microphones. Advantageously, thesensors 13 to 18 can be uniformly spaced on a sphere having a diameterof, for example, 1 meter, with sensor 12 located in the center of thesphere, although other sensor configuration are also feasible. Thecoordinates of the sensors relative to the center of the sphere (C_(x0),C_(y0), C_(z0)) are indicated as (C_(xj), C_(yj), C_(zj)). The signalfrom the exemplary configuration with seven sensors can provide asubstantially spatially uniform sensitivity of the sensor array,regardless of the angle of incidence of the shockwave relative to thecoordinate axes of the array, if the response function of the sensor,i.e., the transfer function {output voltage}/{sound pressure}, isidentical or at least known and constant for all sensors. It has beenfound that, in principle, five sensors are sufficient to determine theangle of incidence in space; however, a 5-element sensor array may lackdirectional uniformity, with certain directions having a highsensitivity and other directions where only a weak signal can bedetected.

Referring now to FIG. 2, a Time of Arrival (TOA) model, which isdescribed in more detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,178,141 (incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety), is used to estimate the trajectory of theprojectile and the shooter direction relative to the sensor location.The TOA model is based on an accurate ballistic model taking intoaccount certain physical characteristics relating to the projectile,including: the air density (which is related to temperature); theCartesian position (P_(x), P_(y), P_(z)) of a shooter; the azimuth andelevation angles of the rifle muzzle; the muzzle velocity of theprojectile (Mach number); and the speed of sound (which varies withtemperature/air density). With this ballistic model, it is possible toaccurately calculate, at any particular point in space, the exact timeat which the shockwave (and muzzle blast, if used) reach a particularpoint in space.

Measurements of a shockwave's pressure and arrival time at five or moreof the aforedescribed sensors are sufficient to determine uniquely theshooter location, bullet trajectory, and caliber. As depicted in thediagram of FIG. 2, the shooter is located at point P (P_(X), P_(Y),P_(Z)) relative to an origin (0, 0, 0), the various sensors are locatedat points C (C_(xj), C_(yj), C_(zj)), and the bullet trajectory is shownemanating from the shooter in the direction of |{right arrow over(A)}_(j)|, where the index j refers to the j^(th) sensor. The vectordistance between the shooter and j^(th) sensor is |{right arrow over(D)}_(j)|, the closest point of approach (CPA) of the bullet to thej^(th) sensor is |{right arrow over (R)}_(j)|, and the path followedfrom the point where the shockwave is radiated from the trajectory tothe j^(th) sensor is {right arrow over (S)}_(j). The Mach angle of thebullet is θ=sin⁻¹(1 /M), M=V/c₀. M is the Mach number of the projectile,V is the supersonic velocity of the projectile, and c₀ is the(pressure-and temperature-dependent) speed of sound. The ‘miss-angle’between trajectory and the j^(th) sensor is γ_(i). The trajectory ischaracterized by its azimuth angle α measured counter-clockwise from thex-axis in the x-y plane and by its elevation angle φ measured upwardfrom the x-y plane. The equations that define the shockwave arrival timet_(j) and unit vector at the j^(th) sensor are written in terms of thesegeometrical quantities.

The time of arrival is equal to the time

$\frac{{\overset{arrow}{A}}_{j}}{V}$it takes for the projectile to travel the distance |{right arrow over(A)}_(j)| to the point were sound is radiated toward the j^(th) sensor,plus the time it takes the shockwave to travel the distance |{rightarrow over (S)}_(j)| from that radiation point to the j^(th) sensor,

$\frac{{\overset{arrow}{S}}_{j}}{c_{0}}.$

$\begin{matrix}{{t_{j} = {{t_{0} + \frac{A_{j}}{V} + \frac{S_{j}}{c_{0}}} = {t_{0} + {\frac{D_{j}}{c_{0}}{\sin( {\gamma_{j} + \theta} )}}}}},} & (1)\end{matrix}$

wherein t₀ is a time reference (firing time). The closest point ofapproach (CPA) between the projectile trajectory and the j^(th) sensoris|{right arrow over (R)}_(j)|=|{right arrow over (D)}_(j)|sin(γ_(j))  (2)

The CPA (or |{right arrow over (R)}_(j)|) can be independentlydetermined from the measured slope of the shockwave depicted in FIG. 3by the following equation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{\overset{arrow}{R}}_{j}} = \frac{\rho\; c^{3}\sqrt{M_{j}^{2} - 1}}{2\;\beta\;{M_{j}( {P_{s}/T_{s}} )}_{j}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

M_(j) is the projectile's Mach number at the point where sound isradiated to the j^(th) sensor along the projectile's trajectory |{rightarrow over (A)}_(j)|, and ρ, c₀, β are the atmospheric density, speed ofsound, and non-linear parameter β≅1.3. The speed of sound c₀ varies withtemperature as c₀=20.05√T_(Kelvin) (m/s). The slope of the shockwave isdefined by its peak pressure P_(s) divided by the half-span T_(s) (seeFIG. 3).

The velocity V of the projectile can be assumed to be constant along itstrajectory, if the sensors are closely spaced, so that there isinsignificant loss of speed between the times the projectile radiates tothe different sensors. In a more general case, however, a mathematicalballistics model that predicts the arrival time of a shockwave at anygeneral point in space as a function of the full set of parameters canbe used. It is derived from physical principles, and has an accuracy ofapproximately 10 parts per million (ppm). The mathematical model isdescribed in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,178,141, the content of which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety. For comparison,conventional empirically derived ballistic models have nominal 1 maccuracy at 1 km, or 1000 ppm.

The ballistic model includes the bullet drag coefficient C_(b), whichdepends upon the projectile's caliber. The caliber may be estimated fromeither the peak pressure (P_(s))_(j) or the half-span (T_(s))_(j)recorded at the j^(th) sensor, using the following equation that dependson certain parameters of the projectile, such as its cross sectionalarea S, its length L, and a constant K that depends on projectile'sshape.

$\begin{matrix}{( T_{s} ) = {\frac{2^{0.75}\beta^{0.5}M_{j}S^{0.5}{K \cdot {R_{j}}^{0.25}}}{L^{0.25}{c_{0}( {M_{j}^{2} - 1} )}^{3/8}}.}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

Once the caliber is found, its unique drag coefficient C_(b) is known.This parameter is important in the ballistic model prediction ofprojectile's trajectory. In the context of the present discussion, thedrag coefficient is assumed to be proportional to the square root ofMach number M. A more accurate model is described in U.S. Pat. No.5,930,202, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety. The distance |{right arrow over (A)}_(j)| and the timet^(Aj) _(j) to reach the point where sound is radiated to the j^(th)sensor are defined in terms of the initial muzzle velocity V₀, the localvelocity V=Mc₀, and drag coefficient C_(b).

$\begin{matrix}{{{{\overset{arrow}{A}}_{j}} = {C_{b}( {\sqrt{V_{0}} - \sqrt{{c_{0}/\sin}\;( \theta_{j} )}} )}}{t_{j}^{A_{j}} = \frac{{\overset{arrow}{A}}_{j}}{V_{0} - {\sqrt{V_{0}}{{{\overset{arrow}{A}}_{j}}/C_{b}}}}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

The sensor arrangement of FIG. 1 is used to measure theTime-Difference-of-Arrival (TDOA) between the different sensors 12 to18. Accordingly, seeking to solve for shooter position and shottrajectory relies heavily on an accurate knowledge of the relativepositions of the sensors 12 to 18 in 3-dimensional space. Further, themeasurements of shock TOA should be unbiased across all sensors andshould be able to compensate for changes in the sensor sensitivity overtime.

The relative positions in space of the sensors may change over time dueto mechanical changes, such as bending or other transformations, therebydegrading the accuracy of estimation of the shooter position from TDOAdifferences. It is therefore important to be able to accuratelycalibrate the sensor positions in the field, either in scheduledintervals or when otherwise warranted, for example, when erroneousmeasurements are suspected.

As described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,930,202, the exact sniper position alongthe bullet trajectory can be computed if the muzzle blast wave can bereliably detected in addition to the projectile's shockwave, assumingthat the sensor coordinates are accurately known. It should be noted,however, that only the relative positions of the sensors, and not theirabsolute positions in space, are required. In the present approach, theinverse problem is solved in that the relative coordinates of thesensors in space are determined from a known shooter position and thedetected shockwave.

The exemplary sensor array 10 of FIG. 1 has n=7 sensors; one of thesensors, for example, the sensor 12 located at the center of sensorarray 10, can be arbitrarily selected as a reference sensor withcoordinates (Cx₀, Cy₀, Cz₀), so that there are (n−1)=6 relative sensorshaving relative sensor positions (Cx_(j), Cy_(j), Cz_(j)), j=1, . . . ,6. The total number of relative coordinates of the sensor array 10 in3-dimensional space is therefore (n−1)*3=18. The muzzle blast arrivaltimes t_(muzzle) and the shockwave arrival times t_(shock) are recordedfor each of the other 6 sensors relative to those of the referencesensor for at least three shots with different known shooter positionsand bullet trajectories. The point in the sensor array against which theshooter's azimuth and elevation angles are to be measured can be, forexample, the aforementioned reference sensor designated as the origin(Cx₀, Cy₀, Cz₀) of a Cartesian system. Three shots produce a total of 42different arrival time measurements (21 muzzle and 21 shock) relative toa firing time t₀. Accordingly, for a sensor configuration with n sensorsand m shots fired, there are (n−1)*3 unknowns (the coordinates (Cx_(j),Cy_(j), Cz_(j)) of the j sensors relative to (Cx₀, Cy₀, Cz₀)) and2*m*(n−1) measured parameters, there is enough additional information toallow for a least-squares approach that can smooth out deviations of theshot (shooter position and bullet trajectory) from the assumedparameters. At least two shots are required to allow for solving thesystem of equations, but three are recommended to allow greatersmoothing of measurement noise. The shots should be taken in a cleanacoustic environment, so that both shock and muzzle blast can beaccurately detected.

In other words, by adding the muzzle-blast equationt_(muzzle)=t₀+|{right arrow over (D)}|/c to the equations (1) or (5)above, the (n−1) relative sensor positions (Cx_(j), Cy_(j), Cz_(j))(j=1,. . . , 6) that best fit the shock and muzzle-blast times Δt_(muzzle)and Δt_(shock) for the three shots can be determined, for example, by aleast-squares gradient search method or by a genetic algorithm (GA). Thegradient search is initialized from the last measured or otherpresumably accurate locations of each sensor.

The least-squares gradient search method or the genetic algorithm (GA)attempt to minimize the RMS residual fit to all the relative sensorspositions (Cx_(j), Cy_(j), Cz_(j)) relative to the reference sensor.

The RMS residual is defined as

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\;\tau_{\min}} = \sqrt{\sum\limits_{j}\begin{Bmatrix}{( {{\Delta\;\tau_{{muzzle},{calc}}^{j}} - {\Delta\;\tau_{{muzzle},{meas}}^{j}}} )^{2} +} \\( {{\Delta\;\tau_{{Shock},{calc}}^{j}} - {\Delta\;\tau_{{Shock},{meas}}^{j}}} )^{2}\end{Bmatrix}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

It has been found that the sensor positions relative to the referencesensor can be computed quickly and reliably by using an evolutionarygenetic algorithm (GA). GAs mimic natural evolutionary principles andapply these to search and optimization procedures. Most classicalpoint-by-point algorithms use a deterministic procedure for approachingthe optimum solution, starting from a random guess solution andspecifying a search direction based on a pre-specified transition rule,such as direct methods using an objective function and constraint valuesand gradient-based methods using first and second order derivatives.However, the latter methods have disadvantages, for example, that anoptimal solution depends on the selected initial solution and that mostalgorithms get “stuck” at a sub-optimal solution.

Unlike classical search and optimization methods, a GA begins its searchwith a random set of solutions, instead of just one solution. Once arandom population of solutions is created, each is evaluated in thecontext of the nonlinear programming problem and a fitness (relativemerit) is assigned to each solution. In one embodiment, the fitness canbe represented by the Euclidean distance between a calculated solutionand the measured solution, as defined in Eq. (6) above. Intuitively, analgorithm producing a small value of Δτ_(min) is better.

When applying the GA to arrive at a solution for the sensor location,the GA uses as a chromosome an initial population of sensor coordinatesthat can be randomly selected or can have values representing previouslymeasured and/or otherwise determined or estimated sensor locations.Typically, a maximum number of iterations for the GA is performed.

For example, in each generation, the “best” individual is allowed tosurvive unmutated, whereas e.g. the top 100 individuals, as judged bytheir fitness, also survive, but are used to create the next 100individuals from pairs of these survivors usingcrossover/mutation/reproduction operators, as described for example inKalyanmoy Deb, Multi-Objective Optimization Using EvolutionaryAlgorithms, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

While least-squares estimation algorithms are robust to Gaussian noisein the measurement of shockwave TOA, any consistent bias in thesemeasurements, for example, due to changes in sensor sensitivity overtime, will impact the reliability of the localization estimation.Moreover, a partial or complete loss of a sensor can undermine anyassumptions of symmetry that may be inherent in such algorithms.

One approach to correct for sensor degradation/loss is to observe thecontribution |τ^(j) _(Shock,calc)−τ^(j) _(Shock,means)| from each of thesensors over time to the residual expression

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\;\tau_{\min}} = {\sqrt{\sum\limits_{j}( {\tau_{{Shock},{calc}}^{j} - \tau_{{Shock},{meas}}^{j}} )^{2}}.}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

The time of arrival τ^(j) _(Shock) is recorded for each sensor and foreach incoming and processed shot. If all sensors respond properly, thenthe values |τ^(j) _(Shock,calc)−τ^(j) _(Shock,means)| can be expected tohave a random distribution. However, if certain sensors consistentlycontribute more than their expected share to the residual sum, thentheir operability and reliability may be in question, and theircontribution to the computed residual should be decreased accordingly.Conversely, the contribution of a sensor that consistently contributesmore than its expected share should be decreased. This can beaccomplished by assigning a weight W_(i) to each sensor that isinversely proportional the sensor's mean contribution to the residualover a running window that includes, for example, the last N shots.

If, as mentioned above, the performance of the array in detectingparticular shots is affected by loss of symmetry, then the maximumpossible value of Δτ_(max) will be less for certain shots than for othershots, depending on how the shockwave propagates across the sensors.That is, certain shots will make the array appear shorter, while othershots will make the array appear longer. In computing the runningaverage contribution of sensors to the residual, these contribution canbe normalized with respect to a maximum possible Δτ_(max) for that shotto allow for consistent comparison of missed-TOA across different shotsof different geometries.

In other words, instead of minimizing the value of the residual of Eq.(7), the value of

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta\;\tau_{\min}} = \frac{\sqrt{\sum\limits_{j}\{ {( {\tau_{{Shock},{calc}}^{j} - \tau_{{Shock},{meas}}^{j}} )*W_{i}} \}^{2}}}{\tau_{\max}}} & (8)\end{matrix}$is minimized. The effect of weighting the residual function by W_(j) isto give greater contribution to those sensors which are showing greaterreliability over recent shots, i.e., contribute less to the residualΔτ_(min). This approach has the benefit that as performance of a givensensor improves (it may be suffering, for example, from an intermittentglitch) the weighted average will, over time, restore its contributionsto full weight. When a sensor is repaired or replaced, the weights canbe explicitly reset to full value. No other changes in the optimizationalgorithm are required.

While the invention has been disclosed in connection with the preferredembodiments shown and described in detail, various modifications andimprovements thereon will become readily apparent to those skilled inthe art. Accordingly, the spirit and scope of the present invention isto be limited only by the following claims.

1. A method for compensating for sensor degradation in a multi-sensorshooter detection system, comprising the steps of: determining a time ofarrival of shockwaves produced at the sensors by incoming shots;performing a least-squares regression for the shockwave arrival times atthe sensors to determine a time residual; observing a contribution ofeach of the sensors to the time residual for a plurality of shots; andcompensating for sensor degradation by assigning a weight for eachsensor, said weight being inversely proportional to a contribution ofsaid sensor to the time residual.
 2. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising the step of normalizing the contribution to an observedmaximum time of arrival difference.
 3. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising the step of computing a weighted shockwave arrival time thatenhances a contribution from sensors that have a greater reliability. 4.The method of claim 3, further comprising determining a shooter positionand bullet trajectory from a time residual computed with said weightedshockwave arrival time.
 5. The method of claim 1, further comprisingadjusting the weight of a sensor when the sensor has been repaired. 6.The method of claim 1, wherein the sensor is an acoustic sensor.
 7. Themethod of claim 6, wherein the acoustic sensor is a microphone.